longistaminata, providing a rich resource for the further elucidation of small RNA functions in rice. Many miRNAs display temporal or tissue-specific expression patterns [33]. Some miRNAs were expressed exclusively in ASs and rhizomes of O. longistaminata, indicating their possible regulatory roles in tissue development. We identified 19 miRNAs,

including osa-miR319a-3p and osa-miR529a, Trametinib chemical structure which were highly and exclusively expressed in the rhizome, and four predicted target genes for osa-miR319a-3p were characterized as encoding the Alg9-like mannosyltransferase protein, dihydrodipicolinate reductase, LSD ONE LIKE 3 (LOL3), and a retrotransposon protein ( Table S4). LOL3 is a zinc finger that may be involved in programmed cell death and defense responses [34]. While the targets for osa-miR529a were predicted to encode a carboxyl-terminal proteinase, a phytosulfokine receptor, a conserved hypothetical protein, and a transposon protein ( Table S4), their detailed functions in rhizome development need further investigation. Comparative analysis of miRNAs differentially expressed between ASs and rhizomes could promote understanding of miRNA functions in rhizome growth regulation and development. In this study, 117 known rice miRNAs, including several important miRNA families, were found to be differentially expressed in rhizomes relative to ASs. Ten

members of the osa-miR156 Clomifene family, whose LDE225 chemical structure target genes are TGA1, SBP TFs, and SPL TFs, which were previously reported to be related to growth and development in plants [35], [36] and [37], had significantly lower expression levels in rhizomes than in ASs. Seven members of the osa-miR444 family, whose predicted target genes included several MADS-box TFs and SNF2 TF, which were found to be involved in cellular processes, also had lower expression levels in rhizomes [38] and [39]. In contrast, osa-miR319b, whose target genes are two TCP TFs, which have been reported to control the morphology of shoot lateral

organs [40], was highly enriched in the rhizome. These results revealed that the identified differentially expressed miRNAs, correlated with their respective target genes, could function in the regulation of rhizome formation. miRNAs bind to target sequences in mRNAs, typically resulting in repressed gene expression, and targets can also reciprocally control the level and function of miRNAs [41]. In the present study, expression antagonism was observed for several miRNAs and their corresponding target genes, including osa-miR156a and two TGA1s. However, a correlative antagonistic expression pattern could not be detected for osa-miR319b and its target TCP gene, indicating their co-expression in specific tissues, a finding consistent with previous reports [42] and [43].

Small http://www.selleckchem.com/screening/fda-approved-drug-library.html posterior and amelanotic tumors can also be a challenge to mark. Here, two techniques are helpful including: posterior point source illumination (e.g., fiber optic or HeNe light sources or scleral depression combined with indirect ophthalmoscopy) and/or intraoperative ophthalmic ultrasound verification [93] and [94]. When this is not possible (e.g., iris and iridociliary melanoma), high-frequency ultrasound imaging and direct transcorneal visualization play a more important role during intraoperative tumor localization (28). In all cases, the plaque is sutured as to cover the scleral-marked target volume. Then, the extraocular muscles and conjunctiva are reattached as not to disturb brachytherapy.

When using plaque with low-energy seeds, the eye is typically covered with a lead patch shield. Typically, after 5–7 days, the patient is returned to the operating room, where the plaque is removed under regional or general anesthesia. The ABS-OOTF agreed (Level 2 Consensus) that displaced muscles should be reattached into their insertions after plaque www.selleckchem.com/products/gkt137831.html removal. However, one ABS-OOTF center did not find it necessary to reattach the inferior oblique muscle. If an amniotic membrane is used to buffer the cornea during brachytherapy, it should be removed before conjunctival closure [95] and [96]. After brachytherapy,

patients are followed for local control, complications, and systemic disease. Most ABS-OOTF centers examine treated eyes every 3–6 months. This time interval can be modulated based on the likelihood Fossariinae of secondary complications. For example, intervals are shorter for patients with posteriorly located

tumors at higher risk of radiation maculopathy and radiation optic neuropathy. These complications typically occur within the first 3 years of follow-up (see radiation complications in the following sections) [8], [51], [60], [61] and [62]. Similarly, most local tumor recurrence occurs during the first 5 years. Therefore, larger and juxtapapillary tumors (at higher risk for regrowth) may require closer follow-up. In addition, patients should be periodically reexamined for evidence of metastatic disease and second nonocular primary cancers [74], [75], [97] and [98]. The ABS-OOTF agrees (Level 1 Consensus) that periodic radiographic abdominal imaging of the liver can be used to detect hepatic melanoma metastasis. We also concur that early detection yields patients with smaller tumor burdens who would more likely benefit from systemic treatment and clinical trials. Uveal melanomas are alternatively be treated by enucleation or exenteration. The former is used when the tumor is confined to the eye and the latter considered in the presence of gross orbital tumor extension. Photon-based EBRT is rarely used prior to enucleation because the COMS large tumor trial found no statistically significant survival advantage [75] and [99].

Immunoblots were scanned and analysed with ImageQuant software (Molecular Dynamics, CA, USA). Lasiodora sp. crude venom was diluted in distilled water (0.5 mg/ml) and centrifuged (2500 × g, 10 min, 4 °C) to remove insoluble materials. The venom was transferred to Vivaspin centrifugal tubes (GE Healthcare, Chalfont St. Giles, UK) with a see more 50 kDa molecular mass cutoff. After centrifugation (4000 × g, 10 min, 20 °C), the filtrate was put into 30 kDa cutoff tubes. The sample was centrifuged again (4000 × g, 10 min, 20 °C). Then the filtrate from 30 kDa tubes was transferred to 3 kDa cutoff tubes

and centrifuged (4000 × g, 50 min, 20 °C). Finally, the filtrate from 3 kDa tubes was collected and stored at −20 °C prior to analysis. Freeze-dried filtrate from 3 kDa cutoff tube was Autophagy activator resuspended in solution A [0.1% trifluoroacetic acid

(TFA; Sigma-Aldrich) in distilled water]. Filtrate diluted to 10 times the initial volume was fractionated by reversed-phase high pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) using an analytical C18SP column (C18 small pore; 90 Å, 5 μm, 4.6 × 250 mm; Grace Vydac, Albany, OR, USA), previously equilibrated with solution A. The sample was eluted with a gradient of solution B [0.1% TFA in acetonitrile (ACN; Merck, Darmstadt, Germany)] at a flow rate of 1 ml/min: 0-17.5% B from 10 to 15 min, 17.5-25% B from 15 to 50 min. This chromatographic procedure was monitored by absorbance at 214 nm. A vasodilator activity screening was performed using the peaks eluted in the first step of reversed-phase

chromatography, as previously described (sections 2.4 and 2.5). The absorption spectrum of the vasoactive fraction in ultraviolet (UV, 200-400 nm) was accomplished using spectrophotometer. Celecoxib Subsequently, the vasoactive fraction from the first step of reversed-phase chromatography was diluted to 5 times the initial volume and applied to a semi-preparative C18SP column (C18 small pore; 90 Å, 5 μm, 10 × 250 mm; Grace Vydac), previously equilibrated with 2% solution B. The gradient of solution B, at a flow rate of 5 ml/min, was: 2-30% B for 75 min, 30-80% B from 75 to 85 min, 80 – 2% B from 100 to 110 min. This second step of reversed-phase chromatography was monitored by absorbance at 214 and 254 nm. All liquid chromatography analyses were performed using a Shimadzu Prominence HPLC (Shimadzu, Kyoto, Japan). The mass spectrometry (MS) analysis was executed by specialists at CEMSA (Centro de Espectrometria de Massas Aplicada, São Paulo, Brazil) using a 3200 QTRAP hybrid triple quadrupole-linear ion trap mass spectrometer equipped with a Turbo Ion Spray source (Applied Biosystems-Sciex, Framingham, MA, USA). The sample was diluted in a 1:1 water/ACN solution and positive-ion mode MS and MS/MS analyses were assayed.

The atmospheric model COSMO-CLM is a non-hydrostatic regional climate model. The model setup complies with CORDEX-EU in the CORDEX framework (Coordinated Regional climate Downscaling Experiment) (Giorgi et al. 2006). The domain covers the whole of Europe, North

Africa, the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea (Figure 1a). The horizontal resolution is 0.44° (approximately 50 km) and the time step is 240 seconds; it has 40 vertical levels. COSMO-CLM Oligomycin A clinical trial applies a ‘mixed’ advection scheme, in which a positive-definite advection scheme is used to approximate the horizontal advection while vertical advection and diffusion are calculated with a partially implicit Crank-Nicholson scheme. In COSMO-CLM, several turbulence schemes are available; in our experiments, we used the so-called 1-D TKE-based diagnostic closure, which is a prognostic

turbulent kinetic energy (TKE) scheme. It includes the interaction of air with solid objects at the surface (roughness elements). We modified the model code to adapt it to the coupled mode. Originally, COSMO-CLM did not have sub-grid scale ice; a grid over the ocean is either fully covered with ice or fully open-water. Thus, a grid size of 50 × 50 km2 implies a rather coarse approximation of real ocean conditions. In addition, COSMO-CLM does not have an ice mask over the ocean; an ocean grid is handled as sea ice or open water depending on the SST. If the temperature is below the freezing point of water, which is −1.7 °C PF-02341066 concentration in COSMO-CLM, the surface is considered to be sea ice. When the temperature is equal to or higher than the freezing point, COSMO-CLM C-X-C chemokine receptor type 7 (CXCR-7) handles the surface as open water. However, a freezing point of water of −1.7 °C is applicable to sea water with a salinity of approximately 35 PSU

(Practical Salinity Units). In contrast, brackish sea water like the Baltic Sea has a much lower salinity than the average salinity of the World Ocean. At the centre of the Baltic Sea, the Baltic Proper, the salinity is only 7–8 PSU, and this decreases even further northwards to the Bothnian Sea, Bothnian Bay and Gulf of Riga (Gustafsson 1997). The freezing point of this brackish water should therefore be higher than −1.7 °C. When the freezing point is so low, the sea ice cover in the Baltic Sea in COSMO-CLM will be substantially underestimated. Therefore, when coupling COSMO-CLM with the ocean model NEMO, the sea ice treatment is modified in the surface roughness and surface albedo schemes. In the current albedo calculation scheme, COSMO-CLM attributes fixed albedo values to the water surface (0.07) and the sea ice surface (0.7) for the whole grid cell. In the coupled mode, as COSMO-CLM receives the ice mask from NEMO, it can now calculate the weighted average of the albedo based on the fraction of ice and open water in a grid cell. The surface roughness length of the sea ice and open-water grid is calculated in the turbulence scheme of COSMO-CLM.

In particular, the experiments discussed above showed that the average ratio between the cross-wind and up-wind mean square slope components varies from 0.75 to 1.03 on slick-covered ocean surfaces. Such a large value of the cross-wind slope component cannot be explained satisfactorily with the unimodal directional distribution, and better agreement is obtained when,

for wave components shorter than the dominant wavelength, the bimodality of directional Selleckchem Metabolism inhibitor spreading is taken into account ( Hwang & Wang 2001). In particular, the ATM data (airborne topographic mapper) of the 3D surface topography and bimodal directional function showed that the average ratio between cross-wind and up-wind slope components can reach a value of 0.88 ± 1.0. In this section we will follow mainly the ideas developed by Massel (2007). Thus, let us define ε as a module of the local surface slope in the direction θ1 against the x axis. For two slope components along the x and y axes we have equation(30) εx=∂ζ∂x=εcosθ1,εy=∂ζ∂y=εsinθ1,in which angle θ1 increases

anticlockwise from the x axis. We assume that the x axis is the wind direction. Therefore, the up- and cross-wind of waves surface slopes are εu = εx and εc = εy respectively. To determine the statistical characteristics of wave slopes, we express the two-dimensional probability density function BTK inhibitor nmr f(ε, θ1) for the module slope ε and direction θ1 in the form suggested by Longuet-Higgins (1957): equation(31) f(ε,θ1)=ε2πΔ××exp−ε2(σy2cos2θ1−2σxy2sinθ1cosθ1+σx2sin2θ1)2Δ,in Thymidylate synthase which the corresponding mean square slopes are equation(32) σx2=(∂ζ∂x)2¯,σy2=(∂ζ∂y)2,¯σxy2=∂ζ∂x∂ζ∂y¯and equation(33) Δ=|σx2σxy2σxy2σy2|.The bar symbolizes the statistical averaging for a given time series of slopes. For the x   axis, parallel to the main wave direction,

the mean square slope σζxy2 is equal to zero, and eq. (31) becomes equation(34) f(ε,θ1)=ε2πΔexp−−ε2(σc2cos2θ1+σu2sin2θ1)2Δ,with Δ=σu2σc2. The subscripts c and u refer to the cross-wind and up-wind components respectively. In order to compare the theoretical distribution of slopes with the Cox & Munk (1954) experiment, we rewrite eq. (24) as a function of two slope components εu and εc, i.e. equation(35) f(εu,εc)=f(ε,θ1)⋅J=f(ε,θ1)|∂ε∂εu,∂ε∂εc∂θ1∂εu,∂θ1∂εc|.Using the fact that equation(36) ε=εu2+εc2andθ1=arctan(εcεu),we obtain equation(37) J=1εu2+εc2.Substituting the above expression in eq. (35) yields equation(38) f(ξ,η)=12πσuσcexp[−12(ξ2+η2)],where equation(39) ξ=εuσu,η=εcσc. Equation (38) takes the form of a two-dimensional Gaussian distribution. It should be noted that Cox & Munk (1954) used the two-dimensional, slightly modified Gaussian distribution (the so-called Gram-Charlier distribution) to fit their experimental data. The Gram-Charlier distribution takes the general form (Massel 1996) equation(40) f=[Gaussain distribution]×[1+∑i,jcijHiHj],in which Hi(x) are Hermite polynomials.

Ban et al. (2013) note that fisheries and conservation goals in High Sea areas can be harmonised provided that the goals and objectives of management are clearly described and they outline a “Systematic Conservation Planning” approach to improve the sustainable use of resources by all stakeholders. The structured method outlined here to identify and assess candidate EBSAs against selection criteria is, we hope, a potentially important tool to help nations effectively manage areas of significant marine biodiversity. The original 2010 workshop was supported by a Sloan Foundation grant to the IUCN and GOBI. CenSeam provided additional support for participants.

Input to that workshop is acknowledged from Edward van den Berghe (OBIS), Karen Stocks (SeamountsOnline; University of California, San Diego), and Derek Tittensor (Dalhousie University) ERK signaling inhibitors for data sets and/or advice. The 2013 workshop was funded by the New Zealand Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade and the Department of Conservation. Additional updated biodiversity (Shannon index) data were provided by OBIS (Ward Appleton) and Duke University (Jesse Cleary). Thanks to Phil Weaver (Seascape Consultants Ltd, UK) for helpful comments on the manuscript. “
“In Bangladesh and many other developing countries, poverty,

intense competition for fishery resources and ineffective PD-166866 cell line resource management institutions increase the challenges in managing

fisheries conflicts. Destructive C1GALT1 fishing practices and competition between users of different classes of gear, resulting from ineffective governance and increasing population, are imposing severe stress on the coastal fisheries of Bangladesh. These factors also contribute to the increasing incidence of conflicts among fishery stakeholders (Kuperan and Jahan, 2010). Conflicts take place in fisheries when groups or individuals seek the same resource using different methods or try to utilize the same space for their activities with either party seeking dominance (Bennett et al., 2001, Charles, 1992 and FAO., 2003). Conflicts over access and control of fisheries and aquatic resources are a global phenomenon. However, they have particular importance in developing countries where a significant portion of the population depends on capture fisheries for food and livelihoods. Conflict can lead to violence, but avoiding and shunning conflict is also problematic because unresolved problems may flare up again, often with renewed vigor (Salayo et al., 2006). While a conflict resolution model (Coser, 1967 and Zartman, 1991) assumes that each dispute needs to be conclusively resolved because of its destructive potential, the conflict management approach (Daniels and Walker, 2001) views some level of conflict as inevitable.

This study aimed to contribute to debates related to European aquaculture development as well as to environmental justice literature by analyzing existing finfish aquaculture conflicts in Europe and by linking them

to the policy level. It underlines that while establishing new strategies for European aquaculture, the focus should not be solely on economic growth, but rather on ecologically, socially and economically sustainable and just development of marine aquaculture. Integration of economic, social and ecological concerns into national and regional aquaculture strategy plans proves to be potentially challenging but necessary in order to ensure social acceptance of fish farms and to control the impacts of new and already existing ones. The article concludes by emphasizing the significance of marine Bortezomib datasheet finfish aquaculture conflicts in Europe and the lessons to be learned in terms of their policy implications. An effective participatory decision-making mechanism should be designed that takes the views and perceptions of all relevant actors into account in order to determine whether or not to construct fish farms; and if yes, where to build them and how many. Best practices safeguarding environmental justice such as the establishment of inclusive decision-making mechanisms, ensuring

access to transparent information find more and an equitable social distribution of burdens, benefits and risks resulting from aquaculture activities should be further investigated and incorporated into future policies. Research for this paper benefited from EC funding under the Marie Curie Actions – Initial

Etoposide Training Networks – FP7 – PEOPLE – 2011; Contract no. 289374 – “ENTITLE”. The research would not have been made possible without the support of interviewees who kindly shared their opinions and knowledge. The authors especially desire to acknowledge Seas at Risk network for facilitating contact and the valuable comments and efforts of Begüm Özkaynak, Pınar Ertör Akyazı, Santiago Gorostiza Langa, Melissa Garcia Lamarca and Marien González Hidalgo. “
“The European Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD, 2008/56/EC) aims to achieve and/or maintain Good Environmental Status (GES) of EU marine waters by 2020. The Directive defines GES as: “The environmental status of marine waters where these provide ecologically diverse and dynamic oceans and seas which are clean, healthy and productive” (MSFD Article 3). GES is described by a comprehensive set of 11 qualitative descriptors. Descriptor 5 relates specifically to eutrophication and states that the human-induced eutrophication should be minimized. One of the first steps that had to be finished until July 2012 was the initial assessment of Member States׳ marine waters (Art. 8 MSFD), the determination of GES (Art. 9 MSFD) and the establishment of environmental targets and associated indicators to achieve GES (Art. 10 MSFD).

We found that when noncytotoxic concentrations of gemcitabine were used, an EPZ5676 incubation period of 24

hours was associated with increased radiosensitization compared to treatment just before LDR. This finding is consistent with prior reports showing that it takes several hours to deplete dNTP pools [13] and [14]. Additionally, an increase in the number of cells in S phase was seen with our dosing schedule consistent with conditions needed for radiosensitization with gemcitabine [13] and [14]. 5-FU’s main mechanism of action is through inhibition of thymidylate synthase [15]. In our study, 5-FU was associated with a pronounced S phase arrest in both HCC cell lines tested. Pretreatment for 24 hours was associated with improved radiosensitivity at noncytotoxic concentrations. Because high levels of enhancement were seen at noncytotoxic concentrations, the mechanism of radiosensitivity is not simply related to killing of radioresistant cells in S phase. More likely, treatment Vincristine price with 5-FU leads to inappropriate S phase progression during LDR [16] and [17]. The findings from our study suggest that

LDR and gemcitabine or 5-FU have complementary effects on cell cycle distribution leading to enhanced radiosensitivity. LDR alone was associated with G2 arrest which persisted for ≥ 24 hours after the 16-hour course of LDR was complete. LDR-induced G2 arrest is well established and is the basis of the inverse dose rate effect [18]. Treatment with gemcitabine plus LDR was associated with a higher percentage of cells in S phase compared to LDR alone in addition to G2 arrest. Additionally, treatment Progesterone with 5-FU

produced S phase arrest in both cell lines. Abnormal progression through S phase in conjunction with LDR-induced G2 arrest would be predicted to lead to increased radiosensitivity. The formation and resolution of γH2AX foci provide insight into the induction of DNA damage and subsequent repair after LDR. As expected, in our study, we saw increased DNA damage and impaired DNA double-strand break repair when 5-FU or gemcitabine was added to LDR. A surprising finding was that DNA double-strand break repair was impaired for a longer period of time after LDR compared to cells treated with SDR at the same dose (4 Gy). Prior reports show that DNA damage is repaired during a course of LDR [19]. Therefore, one might predict less DNA damage after LDR compared to SDR therapy at the same dose. In this study, the percentage of γH2AX-positive cells was relatively similar for each dose rate when cells were examined shortly after radiation therapy; however, at 24 hours, treatment with gemcitabine and LDR was associated with a higher percentage of γH2AX-positive cells compared to treatment with SDR and gemcitabine.

Any laboratory can then compare their own genotypes to the baseline KU-60019 concentration to assist in assigning individuals to population. Given the number of SNP markers found in eukaryotic genomes, the potential to develop targeted SNP assays for specific traceability issues is good. This is particularly the case in many commercially

exploited marine species where population sizes are large meaning selection is relatively powerful in comparison to genetic drift. The FishPoptrace project has developed and tested a range of traceability tools for assigning fish and fish products back to population of origin (SNPs, otolith shape and microchemistry, gene expression, proteomics). SNPs were identified as the only tool that could be used at every stage of the food chain, from freshly caught fish though to processed fish products such as canned or other processed products. SNPs were developed and tested in three species (herring, sole, and hake) and existing SNP markers were tested in cod. SNPs allowed high levels of assignment to population of origin – with a small subset of SNP Ceritinib order markers providing ‘maximum power for minimum cost’ (Nielsen et al., 2012).

Moreover, all protocols were forensically validated. In this study, SNPs for herring, sole and hake were identified through 454 sequencing (Roche 454 GS FLX sequencer) of the transcriptome. By using gene-associated single nucleotide polymorphisms, it was shown that individual marine fish can be assigned back to population of origin with unprecedented high levels of precision. By applying high differentiation single nucleotide polymorphism assays, in four commercial marine fish, on a pan-European scale, 93–100% of individuals could be correctly assigned to origin in policy-driven case studies. The authors

show how case-targeted single nucleotide polymorphism assays can be created and forensically validated, using a centrally maintained and publicly available database. The results demonstrate how application of gene-associated markers will likely revolutionize origin assignment and become highly valuable tools for fighting illegal fishing and mislabelling worldwide 5-FU (Nielsen et al., 2012). Transcriptomics comprises, amongst other methods, the analysis of gene expression changes (as measured by the amount of RNA from a particular gene) of either an entire organism or part of it (e.g. cells, tissues) under different conditions (e.g. at different developmental stages or upon exposure to chemicals or stressors). The most common technologies used to investigate gene expression changes are DNA microarrays, quantitative real time PCR (qRT-PCR) (Lettieri, 2006) and RNAseq (Montgomery, 2010). A DNA microarray is a glass or a nylon membrane on which parts of gene sequences (oligonucleotide probes) are spotted. The fluorescently labelled RNA extracted from organisms, organs (e.g. liver) or cells exposed to a pollutant/stressor is hybridized against the array.

, 1997). The resulting reorganization has been reported

using electrophysiological mapping of receptive fields (Rhoades et al., 1993), transganglionic labeling (Maslany et al., 1990 and Maslany et al., 1991), receptor expression mapping (Foschini et al., 1994), and metabolic uptake measurement (Crockett et al., 1993). There is also evidence that CN reorganization plays some role in cortical reorganization (Bowlus et al., 2003, Killackey and Dawson, 1989, Lane et al., 1995 and Lane et al., 2008). The forepaw barrel subfield (FBS) in primary somatosensory cortex in rat contains CO-stained clusters (called GDC-0068 solubility dmso barrels) that are associated with the representation of the glabrous forepaw digits, digit pads, and palmar pads (Waters et al., 1995); this cluster arrangement of CO labeling in rat SI is similar to that reported in rat CN (Li et al., 2012). The representation of the wrist lies within a nebulously stained field immediately posterior to the FBS and is bordered successively by the representations of the forearm, upper arm, and shoulder, hereby described as the “original shoulder”. Following forelimb amputation in juvenile rats, new input from the shoulder moves in to occupy the deafferented cortical space left vacant in the FBS (Pearson et al., 1999). The new input first appears 4 weeks after

amputation, and by 6 weeks post-amputation, the shoulder representation occupies large regions of the FBS (Pearson et al., 2003). The new

shoulder representation Androgen Receptor Antagonist chemical structure does not derive from the original shoulder representation or from Elongation factor 2 kinase the shoulder representation in second somatosensory cortex (SII) (Pearson et al., 2001). This finding led us to speculate that subcortical loci in the ventral posterior lateral thalamus (VPL) and/or cuneate nucleus (CN) are likely responsible for the expression of delayed large-scale cortical reorganization in the FBS. In the present study, we used extracellular recording techniques in rat to examine the input to CN during the first 12 weeks following forelimb amputation and at 26 and 30 weeks post-amputation in order to compare the temporal pattern of reorganization with that previously reported in the FBS (Pearson et al., 2003). We hypothesized that CN would display a pattern of reorganization similar to that previously reported in the FBS, but the time of first appearance of the new input from the shoulder in CN would occur prior to or simultaneously with its expression in the cortex. Our data show that CN reorganization begins within one week after amputation. New input from the body/chest and/or head/neck appears in the medial and lateral zones. In contrast, significant new input from the shoulder and reorganization within the central zone are absent. These results run counter to our prediction that CN forms a substrate for delayed large-scale cortical reorganization. A total of 39 juvenile Sprague-Dawley rats was used in this study.