Any laboratory can then compare their own genotypes to the baseline KU-60019 concentration to assist in assigning individuals to population. Given the number of SNP markers found in eukaryotic genomes, the potential to develop targeted SNP assays for specific traceability issues is good. This is particularly the case in many commercially

exploited marine species where population sizes are large meaning selection is relatively powerful in comparison to genetic drift. The FishPoptrace project has developed and tested a range of traceability tools for assigning fish and fish products back to population of origin (SNPs, otolith shape and microchemistry, gene expression, proteomics). SNPs were identified as the only tool that could be used at every stage of the food chain, from freshly caught fish though to processed fish products such as canned or other processed products. SNPs were developed and tested in three species (herring, sole, and hake) and existing SNP markers were tested in cod. SNPs allowed high levels of assignment to population of origin – with a small subset of SNP Ceritinib order markers providing ‘maximum power for minimum cost’ (Nielsen et al., 2012).

Moreover, all protocols were forensically validated. In this study, SNPs for herring, sole and hake were identified through 454 sequencing (Roche 454 GS FLX sequencer) of the transcriptome. By using gene-associated single nucleotide polymorphisms, it was shown that individual marine fish can be assigned back to population of origin with unprecedented high levels of precision. By applying high differentiation single nucleotide polymorphism assays, in four commercial marine fish, on a pan-European scale, 93–100% of individuals could be correctly assigned to origin in policy-driven case studies. The authors

show how case-targeted single nucleotide polymorphism assays can be created and forensically validated, using a centrally maintained and publicly available database. The results demonstrate how application of gene-associated markers will likely revolutionize origin assignment and become highly valuable tools for fighting illegal fishing and mislabelling worldwide 5-FU (Nielsen et al., 2012). Transcriptomics comprises, amongst other methods, the analysis of gene expression changes (as measured by the amount of RNA from a particular gene) of either an entire organism or part of it (e.g. cells, tissues) under different conditions (e.g. at different developmental stages or upon exposure to chemicals or stressors). The most common technologies used to investigate gene expression changes are DNA microarrays, quantitative real time PCR (qRT-PCR) (Lettieri, 2006) and RNAseq (Montgomery, 2010). A DNA microarray is a glass or a nylon membrane on which parts of gene sequences (oligonucleotide probes) are spotted. The fluorescently labelled RNA extracted from organisms, organs (e.g. liver) or cells exposed to a pollutant/stressor is hybridized against the array.