We have reported GDC-0973 datasheet that cockroaches, as do dogs and humans, exhibit conditioning of salivation, i.e., they exhibit an increased level of salivation in response to an odor paired with sucrose reward. Salivary conditioning can be monitored by activity changes of salivary neurons in rigidly immobilized animals and thus is useful for the study of brain mechanisms of learning and memory.

In the present study, we found that injection of cycloheximide, a protein synthesis inhibitor, into the hemolymph before multiple conditioning trials impairs formation of 1-day memory, but not that of 30-min memory. This indicates that formation of 1-day memory requires protein synthesis but that of earlier memory does not. We also found that injection of L-NAME, an inhibitor of NO synthase, before multiple conditioning impairs formation of 1-day memory but not that of 30-min memory. We thus conclude that NO signaling participates PR-171 cost in the formation of protein synthesis-dependent

LTM but not that of earlier memory in salivary conditioning. Salivary conditioning in cockroaches should become a pertinent system for the study of neural mechanisms by which activation of NO synthase leads to LTM formation. (C) 2013 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Major depressive disorder (MDD) often occurs during pegylated IFN-alpha 2 (IFN-alpha) treatment. Identifying who is at risk for MOD in this population is essential, and epidemiological studies suggest that sleep may be related to depression risk. Controlling for pre-existing GW786034 manufacturer depression symptoms, we therefore examined whether sleep quality prior to IFN-alpha treatment would predict subsequent MDD incidence during IFN-alpha treatment. Adults with hepatitis C but without current clinical MDD (n = 86) were evaluated prior to IFN-alpha treatment and then prospectively monitored during treatment using self-report measures of

sleep quality (PSQI), depression (BDI), and anger and irritability (AIAQ), as well as with Structured Clinical Interviews for DSM-IV Axis I Disorders (SCID-I). During IFN-alpha treatment, 19% developed MOD, 19% developed subsyndromal depression with irritability, and one developed mania. Controlling for baseline depression symptoms and past history of depression, patients with worse sleep quality (PSQI >= 10) prior to treatment had a significantly shorter time until they developed MDD or any severe psychiatric problem. These findings may have important implications for understanding, predicting, and possibly preventing depression, particularly in individuals treated with IFN-alpha. (C) 2009 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

The ABR threshold differences between control and zinc-deficient mice were greater at higher frequencies. Four weeks of normal diet, following 8 weeks of a zinc-deficient diet, restored the ABR threshold to normal at all measured frequencies. Zinc-deficient mice did not show any distortion product otoacoustic emission threshold change at all frequencies. This finding suggests that a zinc-deficient diet increased the ABR threshold in CBA mice and a zinc-adequate

diet restored the ABR threshold to normal. NeuroReport 23:201-205 (C) 2012 Wolters Kluwer Ro 61-8048 mouse Health vertical bar Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.”
“The design of immunologic interventions to prevent postnatal transmission of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) will require identification of protective immune responses in this setting. Simian

immunodeficiency virus (SIV)-infected rhesus monkeys (RMs), a species that develops an AIDS-like illness following experimental infection, transmit the virus at a high rate during breastfeeding. In contrast, postnatal transmission of SIV occurs rarely or not at all in natural, asymptomatic primate hosts of SIV. These contrasting transmission patterns provide a unique opportunity to study mechanisms that evolved to protect suckling infants C59 wnt mw from SIV infection. We compared the virologic and immunologic properties of milk of SIV-infected and uninfected natural hosts of SIV, African green monkeys (AGMs), to that of RMs. Interestingly, despite a low number of milk CD4(+)

T lymphocytes in uninfected AGMs, milk virus RNA load in SIV-infected AGMs was comparable to that of SIV-infected RMs and that in AGM plasma. This observation is in contrast to the relatively low virus load in milk compared to that in plasma https://www.selleck.cn/products/su5402.html of SIV-infected RMs and HIV-infected women. Milk of SIV-infected AGMs also displayed robust virus-specific cellular immune responses. Importantly, an autologous challenge virus-specific neutralization response was detected in milk of five of six SIV-infected AGMs that was comparable in magnitude to that in plasma. In contrast, autologous challenge virus neutralization was not detectable in milk of SIV-infected RMs. The autologous virus-specific adaptive immune responses in breast milk of AGMs may contribute to impedance of virus transmission in the infant oral/gastrointestinal tract and the rarity of postnatal virus transmission in natural hosts of SIV.”
“Rational site-directed mutagenesis and biophysical analyses have been used to explore the thermodynamic stability and catalytic capabilities of organophosphorus hydrolase (OPH) and its genetically modified variants. There are clear trade-offs in the stability of modifications that enhance catalytic activities. For example, the H254R/H257L variant has higher turnover numbers for the chemical warfare agents VX (144 versus 14 s(-1) for the native enzyme (wild type) and VR (Russian VX, 465 versus 12 s(-1) for wild type).

The diagnostic accuracy of KAI1 immunostaining for discerning chromophobe

renal cell carcinoma from oncocytoma was 90% with similar results observed at the RNA level.

Conclusions: KAI1 is an accurate biomarker for chromophobe renal cell carcinoma that may aid in the diagnostic differentiation Selleck Torin 1 of chromophobe renal cell carcinoma from oncocytoma. It remains to be determined whether KAI1 expression contributes to the low metastatic potential of chromophobe renal cell carcinoma.”
“The new era of functional genomics demands several antibodies as specific detection reagents for proteins, their complexes and post-translational modifications. Only in vitro antibody selection technologies are able to provide the required throughput to generate these large numbers. Phage display is the most widely used technology for in vitro selection of antibodies. The major bottleneck of a phage display selection pipeline is the production of monoclonal antibody fragments for screening and further analysis.

In this study, we describe the development of improved protocols for the production of single chain Fv (scFv) antibody fragments in 96-well microtitre plates (MTPs) in Escherichia coli. Four scFvs were expressed using the antibody expression vector pOPE101-XP to analyse the influence of a set of different parameters on their production. Further, six scFvs were expressed using the phage display vector pHAL14 to investigate the effect on the production of functional scFvs using those check details parameters that improved production from pOPE101-XP. Yield in MTPs was influenced by a variety of conditions and was also strongly dependent on the individual scFv clone. Although it was not possible to deduce a single set of optimal parameters applicable to all the tested scFvs, a combined protocol was developed which improved the expression of scFv fragments over standard methods.”
“Purpose: Bladder cancer is the fifth

click here most common malignancy in men in Western society. We determined RAS codon 12 and 13 point mutations and evaluated mRNA expression levels in transitional cell carcinoma cases.

Materials and Methods: Samples from 30 human bladder cancers and 30 normal tissues were analyzed by polymerase chain reaction/restriction fragment length polymorphism and direct sequencing to determine the occurrence of mutations in codons 12 and 13 of RAS family genes. Moreover, we used real-time reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction to evaluate the expression profile of RAS genes in bladder cancer specimens compared to that in adjacent normal tissues.

Results: Overall H-RA-S mutations in codon 12 were observed in 9 tumor samples (30%). Two of the 9 patients (22%) had invasive bladder cancer and 7 (77%) had noninvasive bladder cancer. One H-RAS mutation (11%) was homozygous and the remaining 89% were heterozygous. All samples were WT for K and N-RAS oncogenes.

Our results point out the importance of cell substrates for vaccine preparation since the virus

may change during passages in certain cells through adaptive selection, and such mutations may affect cell tropism, virulence, and vaccine efficacy.”
“It has been suggested that hyperpolarization-activated cyclic-nucleotide-gated cation non-selective channel (HCN) 1 is primarily expressed in the hippocampus and can be regulated in many pathological settings. However, little is known about its change under ischemic conditions. In the present study, we performed neurophysiological recordings of Selleck Cl-amidine sham-operated and chronic ischemic rats with hypoperfusion during the resolution of the neurological deficits respectively. In situ hybridization methods and reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) assays were used to investigate whether and how HCN1 mRNA may be altered

in global incomplete chronic cerebral ischemic rat model. Our results suggested that attenuated spatial learning and memory function of rats shown by longer escape latency, shorter time spent in the target quadrant and impaired long-term potentiation (LTP) after chronic cerebral ischemia. In the in situ hybridization cytochemistry experiment, HCN1 mRNA declined to 52.00% and 46.00% of the control values in the cornus ammon 1 (CA1) regions of hippocampus Cyclopamine clinical trial and neocortex separately after chronic cerebral ischemia. HCN1 mRNA in the hippocampal CA1 region and neocortex was markedly down regulated by ischemia, reaching 48.90% and 45.80% of the control values respectively

in the semi-quantitative RTPCR experiment. The phenomenon opened new insights for further investigation of the physiological and pathological significances of HCN1 in chronic incomplete global cerebral ischemia. (C) 2010 IBRO. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Interferon https://www.selleck.cn/products/Gefitinib.html regulatory factor 3 (IRF-3) is essential for innate intracellular immune defenses that limit virus replication, but these defenses fail to suppress human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection, which can ultimately associate with opportunistic coinfections and the progression to AIDS. Here, we examined antiviral defenses in CD4(+) cells during virus infection and coinfection, revealing that HIV type 1 (HIV-1) directs a global disruption of innate immune signaling and supports a coinfection model through suppression of IRF-3. T cells responded to paramyxovirus infection to activate IRF-3 and interferon-stimulated gene expression, but they failed to mount a response against HIV-1. The lack of response associated with a marked depletion of IRF-3 but not IRF-7 in HIV-1-infected cells, which supported robust viral replication, whereas ectopic expression of active IRF-3 suppressed HIV-1 infection.

Results were combined across the samples to assess the average contribution.

Frailty markers were found to consistently aggregate in each sample, suggesting a possible underlying construct. Physical strength had the highest contribution on average in explaining differences among individuals. Mobility and energy also had large contributions. Nutrition and cognition had the smallest contributions.

Our results provide further evidence supporting the notion that frailty domains may belong to a common construct. Physical strength may be the most important

discriminating characteristic.”
“The nucleolus is involved in regulating several aspects of stress responses and cell cycle arrest through the tumor suppressor p53. Under normal conditions, p53 is a short-lived protein that is present in cells at a barely detectable level. Upon exposure of cells to various forms of exogenous stress, such as DNA damage, selleck there is a stabilization of p53 which is then responsible for an ensuing cascade of events. To further investigate Omipalisib nmr the effect of p53 activation, we used a MS-based proteomics method to provide an unbiased, quantitative and high-throughput approach for measuring the subcellular distribution of the proteome that is dependent on p53. The spatial proteomics method analyses a whole cell extract created by recombining differentially labeled subcellular

fractions derived from cells in which proteins have been mass labeled with heavy isotopes [Boisvert, F.-M., Lam, Y. W., Lamont, D., Lamond, A. I., Mol. Cell. Proteomics 2010, 9, 457-470]. This was used here to measure the relative distribution between cytoplasm, nucleus and nucleolus of around 2000 proteins in HCT116 cells that are either expressing wild-type p53 or null for p53. Spatial proteomics also facilitates a proteome-wide comparison of changes in protein localization in response to a wide range of physiological and experimental perturbations. We used this method to Tariquidar study differences in protein localization in HCT116 cells either with or without p53, and studied the differences in cellular

response to DNA damage following treatment of HCT116 cells with etoposide in both p53 wild-type and null genetic backgrounds.”
“Chronic stress or glucocorticoid exposure simplifies hippocampal Cornu Ammonis region 3 (CA3) apical dendritic arbors in male rats. In contrast to males, chronic stress either reduces CA3 basal branching or exerts no observable morphological effects in gonadally intact female rats. Under conditions that females display stress-induced CA3 dendritic retraction, such as that following ovariectomy, chronic exposure to 17 beta-estradiol or cholesterol can negate these changes. Whether glucocorticoids produce CA3 dendritic retraction in ovariectomized females and whether neuroprotection from 17 beta-estradiol or cholesterol is sex-specific remains unknown.

Fine structural analysis revealed that each palisade ending in dog EOMs establish nerve terminals on the tendon. In some palisade endings we found nerve terminals contacting the muscle fiber as well Such neuromuscular contacts have a basal lamina in the synaptic cleft. By using an antibody against choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) we proved that canine palisade endings are ChAT-immunoreactive This study shows that palisade endings are present in canine EOMs In line with prior findings in cat and monkey. palisade endings in dog have a cholinergic phenotype. (C) 2009 Elsevier Ireland Ltd All rights reserved”
“Several putative biomarkers have been suggested for identifying murine follicular

stem cells; however, human hair follicles have a different pattern of biomarker expression, and follicular stem cell isolation methods have not been established. To isolate a stem cell population applicable this website to clinical settings, we conducted a comprehensive survey of the expression of stem-cell-associated (K15, CD200, CD34,

and CD271) and ZD1839 other biomarkers (K1, K14, CD29, and CD49f) in immunohistological sections of the human epidermis and follicular outer root sheath (ORS). We also examined freshly isolated and cultured epidermal or follicular cells with single- and multicolor flow cytometry or immunocytochemistry. After sorting cells by CD200, CD34, and forward scatter (FSC) values (cell size), colony-forming assays were performed. We found that biomarkers were differentially expressed in the epidermis and ORS. Basal bulge cells were mainly K15(+)CD200(+)CD34(-)CD271(-), and suprabasal cells were K15(-)CD200(+)CD34(-)CD271(-). https://www.selleck.cn/products/yap-tead-inhibitor-1-peptide-17.html We categorized follicular cells into nine subpopulations according to biomarker expression profiles. The CD200(+)CD34(-) bulge cells had much higher colony-forming abilities than the CD34(+) population, and were divided into two

subpopulations: a CD200(+)CD34(-)FSC(high) (K15-rich, basal) and a CD200(+)CD34-FSC(low) (K15-poor, suprabasal) population. The former formed fewer but larger-sized colonies than the latter. Follicular epithelial cell cultivation resulted in loss of K15, CD200, CD34, and CD271 expression, but maintenance of K14, CD29, and CD49f expression. We found that the bulge contained two populations with different localizations, cell sizes, and colony-forming abilities. We showed that K15, CD200, CD34, and CD271 were useful biomarkers for characterizing freshly isolated human follicular epithelial cells in diverse stages of differentiation. Laboratory Investigation (2009) 89, 844-856; doi:10.1038/labinvest.2009.48; published online 8 June 2009″
“Speech comprehension is significantly improved by visual input oil the speaker’s mouth movements. Audiovisual integration underlying this phenomenon is often studied in EEG experiments in which the event related brain potential (ERP) elicited by a bimodal stimulus is compared to the sum of ERPs triggered by auditory and visual signals of the same source.

“
“One of the common symptoms of dementia is delusions. Due to a biological conceptualization ZD1839 purchase of the behaviors represented as delusions, these are classified as psychotic symptoms. This is a qualitative and quantitative study aiming to describe the delusions experienced by older persons with dementia and the context of occurrence, and to elucidate their etiology. Participants were 74 nursing home residents aged 65 and over, diagnosed with dementia, from nine nursing homes in Israel. Participants with delusions were found to have significantly more difficulties in performing ADLs, and poorer vision and hearing.

Based on assessment using the BEHAVE-AD, six categories of delusions were examined: 1. One’s house is not one’s home, 2. Theft, 3. Danger, 4. Abandonment, 5. Misidentification, AZD5153 in vivo and 6. Other non-paranoid. Common themes appeared across delusions including reality, disorientation, re-experience of past events, loneliness and insecurity, boredom, and trigger. Current results suggest that delusions may not represent psychotic symptoms for most participants, because they sometimes represented reality, or were neither firm nor incontrovertible. Thus, utilizing the term delusion relegates

the person’s behavior to the domain of severe psychiatric phenomena and precludes understanding its true meaning. (C) 2011 Published by Elsevier Ireland Ltd.”
“The antihypertensive effects of both extracts and glycosaminoglycan derived from Isaria sinclairii (IS) were investigated in a spontaneously hypertensive rat (SHR) model. Groups of rats were treated orally with 30 mg/kg each of: (1) Selleckchem Pifithrin�� saline control or extracts of (2) water-IS

(3) methanol-IS, (4) butanol-IS, (5) ethyl acetate-IS, or (6) captopril as positive control. The 30-mg/kg dose was administered with a standard diet every day for a period of 2 wk. The antihypertensive effects of the individual extracts were in the following order: methanol > water > ethyl acetate > butanol. Glycosaminoglycan (GAG) obtained from IS as a water-soluble alcohol precipitation fraction produced an antihypertensive effect. One month following administration of GAG derived from IS to SHR animals there was a marked decrease in systolic blood pressure from 183 to 105 mm Hg and reduced diastolic blood pressure from 148 to 80 mm Hg compared to untreated control SHR rats. It was found that GAG produced an antihypertensive effect, which was more effective than the positive control captopril. In the SHR animal model a fall of 19% in body weight was observed in the group that received GAG. Data thus indicate that GAG derived from I. sinclairii may be a potent, naturally occurring antihypertensive agent. SHR (Spontaneously Hypertensive Rat); WKY (Wistar Kyoto Rat); glycosaminoglycan (GAG); I. sinclairii (IS); ISMC30: I. sinclairii methanol extract 30 mg/kg; ISG2: I. sinclairii glycosaminoglycan 2 mg/kg; IS GAG: I. sinclairii glycosaminoglycan.

Conclusions: Epicardial echocardiography detects residual intraoperative lesions not visualized by transesophageal echocardiography,

most frequently related to pulmonary arteries. Its use, in addition to standard transesophageal echocardiography, may decrease the need for early reintervention. (J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2012; 143:361-7)”
“Background. Evidence suggests that repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) over the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) might be a promising new treatment procedure for depression. However, underlying working mechanisms of this technique are yet unclear. Multiple sessions of rTMS may – apart from the reported antidepressant effects-cause primary improvements in attentional control over emotional information, modulated by changes in cortical brain excitability within stimulated prefrontal regions.

Method. HSP990 concentration In two experiments, we examined the temporary beta-catenin inhibitor effects of high-frequency (HF) rTMS (10 Hz) applied over the left and right DLPFC on the attentional processing of emotional information and self-reported mood within samples of healthy volunteers.

Results. The present study showed that one session of HF-rTMS over the right DLPFC

produces instant impairments in the ability to inhibit negative information, in line with a characteristic cognitive vulnerability found in depressive pathology, whereas HF-rTMS of the left DLPFC did not lead to significant changes in attentional control. These effects could not be attributed to mood changes.

Conclusions. The findings of the present study may suggest a specific involvement of the right DLPFC in the attentional processing of emotional information.”
“Introduction: Novel technetium-labeled ligands, Tc-99m-NCAM and Tc-99m-NHAM were developed from the N-methyl-D-aspartate

(NMDA) receptor agonist memantine as a lead Metabolism inhibitor compound by coupling with N2S2. This study evaluated the binding affinity and specificity of the ligands for the NMDA receptor.

Methods: Ligand biodistribution and uptake specificity in the brain were investigated in mice. Binding affinity and specificity were determined by radioligand receptor binding assay. Three antagonists were used for competitive binding analysis. In addition, uptake of the complexes into SH-SY5Y nerve cells was evaluated.

Results: The radiochemical purity of Tc-99m-labeled ligands was more than 95%. Analysis of brain regional uptake showed higher concentration in the frontal lobe and specific uptake in the hippocampus. Tc-99m-NCAM reached a higher target to nontarget ratio than Tc-99m-NHAM. The results indicated that Tc-99m-NCAM bound to a single site on the NMDA receptor with a K-d of 701.21 nmol/l and a B-max of 62.47 nmol/mg. Specific inhibitors of the NMDA receptor, ketamine and dizocilpine, but not the dopamine D-2 and 5HT(1A) receptor partial agonist aripiprazole, inhibited specific binding of Tc-99m-NCAM to the NMDA receptor.

Clients in the center-based arm of the trial experienced fewer total falls and this group also had a greater reduction in the total number of fallers after the intervention.

This research demonstrates that delivering a similar service in different settings-home based or center based-impacts upon the effectiveness of the service. Community-dwelling older adults with a history of falls should be provided with center-based programs in preference to home-based programs where they are available.”
“Several this website reports suggest beneficial impacts of either physical or

mental activity on cognitive function in old age. However, the differential effects of complex mental and physical activities on cognitive performance in humans remain to be clarified.

This randomized controlled trial evaluates a cognitive and a physical standardized 6-month activity intervention (3 x 1.5 h/wk) conducted in Berlin (Germany). Two hundred fifty nine healthy women aged 70-93 years were randomized to a computer course (n = 92), an exercise course (n = 91), or a control group (n = 76), of whom 230 completed the 6-month assessment. Group differences in change over a period of 6 months in

episodic memory (story recall, possible range, 0-21; word recall, possible range, 0-16), executive TPCA-1 chemical structure control (working memory, ie, time quotient of Trail Making Tests B/A), and verbal fluency were evaluated by analyses of covariance (intention to treat) adjusting for baseline, fluid intelligence, and educational level.

In contrast to the control group, both the exercise group, delta M (SD) = 2.09 (2.66), p < .001, and the computer group, delta M (SD) =1.89 (2.88), p < .001, showed improved delayed story recall. They maintained performance in delayed word recall and working memory (time measure) as click here opposed to the control group that showed a decline, delta M (SD) = -0.91 (2.15), p = .001, and delta M (SD) = 0.24 (0.68), p = .04, respectively.

In healthy older women, participation in new stimulating activities contributes to cognitive fitness and might

delay cognitive decline. Exercise and computer classes seem to generate equivalent beneficial effects.”
“Transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) is a cytokine known to participate in several processes related to the development of chronic kidney disease (CKD), including tubular degeneration. This is thought to occur mainly through apoptosis and epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) of tubule epithelial cells, which give rise to a reduction of the tubular compartment and a scarring-like, fibrotic healing process of the interstitial compartment. In vivo blockade of TGF-beta action has been shown to reduce CKD-associated tubular damage. However, a direct action of TGF-beta on tubule cells is controversial as the underlying mechanism.

Results: The mean age of patients was 59 +/- 68 years, and 39 were women (12%). The median EuroSCORE was 2 (interquartile

range 1-4). The arterial group comprised 161 patients, and the conventional group comprised 170 patients. The mean number of bypasses in the arterial group was 2.9 +/- 0.9 versus 3.2 +/- 0.9 in the conventional group (P = .004). Three months’ follow-up for the arterial versus conventional groups showed the following: deaths: 1 (0.6%) versus 0; stroke: 3 (1.9%) versus 3 (1.8%); myocardial infarction: 6 (3.7%) versus 4 (2.4%); sternal wound A-1331852 in vivo reoperation: 4 (2.5%) versus 0 (P = .054); arm and leg wound complications requiring hospitalization: 3 (1.9%) versus 6 (3.5%) (P = .50), respectively.

Conclusion: These results confirm previous reports that total

arterial revascularization can be performed with low in-hospital morbidity and mortality. Further, in the 3 postoperative months, total arterial revascularization did not lead to more complications or admissions than conventional surgery. Arterial grafting was performed with significantly fewer bypasses, but no differences in anginal status were seen after 3 months. A tendency toward more sternal complications after arterial grafting was observed, but clinical outcomes were comparable to conventional grafting.”
“The auditory midbrain implant (AMI), which is designed for stimulation of the inferior colliculus (IC), is now in clinical Z-DEVD-FMK datasheet trials. The AMI consists of a single shank array (20 contacts) and uses a stimulation strategy originally designed for cochlear implants since it is already approved for human use and we do not yet know how to optimally activate the auditory midbrain. The goal of this study was to investigate the effects of different pulse rates and phase durations on loudness and pitch percepts because these parameters are required to implement the AMI stimulation strategy. Although each patient was implanted into a different region (i.e. lateral lemniscus, central nucleus of IC, dorsal cortex of IC), they generally exhibited

similar threshold versus phase duration, threshold versus pulse rate, and pitch versus pulse rate curves. In particular, stimulation with 100 mu s/phase, 250 pulse per second (pps) pulse trains achieved an optimal balance among safety, EPZ 6438 energy, and current threshold requirements while avoiding rate pitch effects. However, we observed large differences across patients in loudness adaptation to continuous pulse stimulation over long time scales. One patient (implanted in dorsal cortex of IC) even experienced complete loudness decay and elevation of thresholds with daily stimulation. Comparing these results with those of cochlear implant and auditory brainstem implant patients, it appears that stimulation of higher order neurons exhibits less and even no loudness summation for higher rate stimuli and greater current leakage for longer phase durations than that of cochlear neurons.