Nat Mater 2009, 8:543–557.CrossRef 22. Phenrat T, Kim HJ, Fagerlund F, Illangasekare T, Tilton RD, Lowry GV: Particle size distribution, concentration, and magnetic attraction affect transport of polymer-modified Fe 0 nanoparticles in sand columns. Environ Sci Technol 2009, 43:5079–5085.CrossRef 23. Goon IY, Lai LMH, Lim M, Munroe P, Gooding JJ, Amal R: Fabrication and

dispersion of gold-shell-protected magnetite nanoparticles: systematic control using polyethyleneimine. Chem Mater 2009, 21:673–681.CrossRef 24. Takahashi Selleckchem YH25448 K, Kato H, Saito T, Matsuyama S, Kinugasa S: Precise measurement of the size of nanoparticles by dynamic light scattering with uncertainty analysis. Part Part Syst Charact 2008, 25:31–38.CrossRef 25. Goldburg WI: Dynamic light scattering. Am J Phys 1999, 67:1152–1160.CrossRef 26. Chatterjee J, Haik Y, Chen CJ: Size dependent magnetic properties of iron oxide nanoparticles. J Magn Magn Mater 2003, 257:113–118.CrossRef 27. DiPietro RS, Johnson HG, Bennett SP,

Nummy TJ, Lewis LH: Determining magnetic nanoparticle size distributions Momelotinib order from thermomagnetic measurements. Appl Phys Lett 2010, 96:222506.CrossRef 28. Silva LP, Lacava ZGM, Buske N, Morais PC, Azevedo RB: Atomic force microscopy and transmission electron microscopy of biocompatible magnetic fluids: a comparative analysis. J Nanopart Res 2004, 6:209–213.CrossRef 29. Dukhin AS, Goetz PJ: Acoustic and electroacoustic spectroscopy. Langmuir 1996, 12:4336–4344.CrossRef 30. selleck chemicals Chantrell RW, Wohlfarth EP: Rate dependent of the field-cooled magnetisation of a fine particle system. Phys Status Solidi A 1985, 91:619–626.CrossRef 31. El-Hilo M, O’Grady K, Chantrell RW: Susceptibility phenomena in a fine particle system: I. Concentration dependence of peak. J Magn Magn Mater 1992, 114:295–306.CrossRef 32.

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1)   [31]

84 2 15 H043940028 closest available to centroid only one available from this cluster NGS paired end Illumina 283 ERR315648 47 3 16 H063920004 internationally significant in top six strains that cause disease NGS 454, paired end Illumina and mate paired Illumina paired end 211 mate paired 227 ERR315649 47 3 16 Lorraine already published in top six strains that cause disease GenBank(NC_018139.1)   [23] 47 3 16 LP_617 already published in top six strains that cause disease EMBLBank(ERS166047)   [32] 54* 3 16 H065000139 closest to centroid uncommon strain nothing known NGS paired end Illumina 161 ERR315650 62 3 16 H064180002 internationally significant in top JQ1 nmr six strains that cause disease NGS 454   ERR315651 611 4 124 H090500162 only one in cluster find more unique environmental isolate NGS mate paired Illumina 276 ERR315652 87 5 17 LC6677 second of cluster common Cytoskeletal Signaling inhibitor serogroup 3 strain – does cause disease NGS paired end Illumina 490 ERR315653 376 5 17 RR08000760 closest

to centroid unique environmental isolate NGS mate paired Illumina 235 ERR315654 1* 6 1 Paris already published   GenBank (NC_006368.1)   [31] 1 6 1 LP_423 already published   EMBLBank(ERS166048)   [32] 5 6 1 EUL00013 (83/41091) on an interesting branch of ST001 only three in database – all from small outbreak in Glasgow NGS mate paired Illumina 304 ERR315655 152 6 1 H074360702 closest to centroid uncommon – mainly environmental NGS mate paired Illumina 180 ERR315656 179 D-malate dehydrogenase 7 130 H093380153 closest to centroid

uncommon but causes disease NGS paired end Illumina 32 ERR315657 337 7 130 RR08000517 second of cluster uncommon strain appears to be phenotypically variable NGS mate paired Illumina 161 ERR315658 42 8 14 130b (Wadsworth) already published in top six strains that cause disease – globally distributed. Isolated in USA in ~1980 GenBank (FR687201.1)   [33] 42 8 14 H044540088 internationally significant as above but isolated in UK in 2004 – assumed to be virulent NGS 454   ERR315659 44 8 14 H100260089 closest to centroid similar to ST42 but not so common NGS paired end Illumina 346 ERR315660 154* 9 12 LC677 4 closest to centroid seen in Canada and UK as a cause of nosocomial LD NGS mate paired Illumina 84 ERR315661 336* 9 12 Lansing-3 (sgp15TS) second of cluster Representative of L.

Diverticulitis Sigmoid diverticulitis is a common disease of the Western World and results in a significant number of hospital admissions. Antibiotics are the standard of care for uncomplicated diverticulitis. Percutaneous drainage is the intervention of choice for simple uniloculated abscesses. It has a success

rate of more than 80%, but it may have a high failure rate in cases of complex multiloculated or inaccessible abscesses [49]. The use of antibiotics and percutaneous drainage in the management of diverticular abscesses CP690550 facilitates single stage operation to perform subsequently an elective sigmoidectomy. Ambrosetti et al. [50] studied retrospectively 73 patients with diverticular abscesses with a follow up of 43 months and found that 59% of the patients needed surgery either during the acute admission or as an elective procedure. The other patients

did not need surgical intervention after conservative treatment either with or without percutaneous drainage. The study also compared the mesocolic abscesses with the pelvic ones. Pelvic abscesses exhibited an aggressive behaviour and therefore needed to be rapidly drained CP673451 percutaneously and were likely to require surgery. Brandt et al. [51] retrospectively compared patients with CT confirmed abscesses, treated by antibiotics alone and patient treated by antibiotics with percutaneous drainage. The patients treated with antibiotics alone achieved an outcome selleck products similar to patients treated with percutaneous drainage. The average abscess size was 4 cm in the antibiotic only group and 6 cm in percutaneous group. Failure rate of percutaneous drainage in this series was 33%. Siewert et al. [52] reported that antibiotics alone were effective in resolving acute symptoms for abscess size less than 3 cm. Urgent surgery for colonic diverticula perforations is indicated in patients with large or/and multiloculated diverticular abscesses inaccessible to percutaneous drainage or in whom clinical symptoms persist after CT guided percutaneous drainage, diverticulitis associated with free perforation and purulent or

fecal diffuse peritonitis. There is still controversy about the optimal surgical management of colonic diverticular disease, complicated by peritonitis. Hartmann’s resection Amisulpride has been considered the procedure of choice in patients with generalized peritonitis and remains a safe technique for emergency colectomy in perforated diverticulitis, especially in elderly patients with multiple co-morbidities [53]. More recently, some reports have suggested that primary resection and anastomosis is the preferred approach to diverticulitis, even in the presence of diffuse peritonitis [54, 55]. In 2006 a sistematic review by Constantinides et al. [56] about primary resection with anastomosis vs. Hartmann’s procedure in nonelective surgery for acute colonic diverticulitis was published.

In Campylobacter, Molecular and cellular biology. Edited by: Ketley J, Konkel ME, Norfilk NR. Horizone Bioscience, 180JA, U.K; 2005:275–292.

32. Kegg Pathway Database. 2010. http://​www.​genome.​jp/​kegg/​pathway.​html 33. Foster JW: The acid tolerance response of Salmonella typhimurium involves transient synthesis of key acid shock proteins. J Bacteriol 1993,175(7):1981–1987.PubMed 34. Sørensen LM, Lametsch R, Andersen MR, Nielsen PV, Frisvad JC: Proteome analysis of Aspergillus niger: lactate added in starch-containing Sepantronium cost medium can increase production of the mycotoxin fumonisin B2 by modifying acetyl-CoA metabolism. BMC Microbiol 2009, 9:255.PubMedCrossRef 35. Pfaffl MW: A new mathematical model for relative quantification in real-time RT-PCR. Nucleic Acids Res 2001,29(9):e45.PubMedCrossRef 36. Russell TL, Berardi RR, Barnett JL, Dermentzoglou LC, Jarvenpaa KM, Schmaltz SP, Dressman JB: Upper gastrointestinal pH in seventy-nine healthy, elderly, North American men and women. Pharm Res 1993,10(2):187–196.PubMedCrossRef 37. van Vliet AH, Ketley JM, Park SF, Penn CW: The role of iron in Campylobacter gene regulation, metabolism and oxidative stress defense. FEMS Microbiol Rev 2002,26(2):173–186.PubMedCrossRef 38. Hickey EW, Hirshfield IN: Low-pH-induced

effects on patterns of protein synthesis and on internal pH in Escherichia coli and Salmonella typhimurium. Appl Environ Microbiol 1990,56(4):1038–1045.PubMed 39. Stancik Selleckchem Ilomastat Tolmetin LM, Stancik DM, Schmidt B, Barnhart DM, Yoncheva YN, Slonczewski JL: pH-dependent expression of periplasmic proteins and amino acid catabolism in Escherichia coli. J Bacteriol 2002,184(15):4246–4258.PubMedCrossRef 40. Baillon ML, van Vliet

AH, Ketley JM, Constantinidou C, Penn CW: An iron-regulated alkyl hydroperoxide reductase (AhpC) confers aerotolerance and oxidative stress resistance to the microaerophilic pathogen Campylobacter jejuni. J Bacteriol 1999,181(16):4798–4804.PubMed 41. Ishikawa T, Mizunoe Y, Kawabata S, Takade A, Harada M, Wai SN, Yoshida S: The iron-binding protein Dps confers hydrogen peroxide stress resistance to Campylobacter jejuni. J Bacteriol 2003,185(3):1010–1017.PubMedCrossRef 42. Pesci EC, Cottle DL, Pickett CL: Genetic, enzymatic, and pathogenic studies of the iron superoxide dismutase of Campylobacter jejuni. Infect Immun 1994,62(7):2687–2694.PubMed 43. Purdy D, Cawthraw S, Dickinson JH, Newell DG, Park SF: A-1155463 supplier Generation of a superoxide dismutase (SOD)-deficient mutant of Campylobacter coli: evidence for the significance of SOD in Campylobacter survival and colonization. Appl Environ Microbiol 1999,65(6):2540–2546.PubMed 44. Blankenhorn D, Phillips J, Slonczewski JL: Acid- and base-induced proteins during aerobic and anaerobic growth of Escherichia coli revealed by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis. J Bacteriol 1999,181(7):2209–2216.PubMed 45.

It is well established that virulence factors are often located on mobile elements, such as plasmids or pathogenicity islands and are thus often subjected to horizontal gene transfer [4]. Sequence analyses of aatA and Lonafarnib solubility dmso the flanking regions revealed a potential of mobility for the adhesin gene. In all completely sequenced E. coli genomes, where an aatA sequence was detected, the gene locus was enclosed by transposable elements. Furthermore, episomally located aatA variants might be transferred in the context of the whole plasmid,

presuming the presence of functional transfer and mobility elements. In addition, possible sequence variations among aatA genes of strains allocated to different phylogenetic groups might be reflected functionally, which has for example been shown for the genes of the fim cluster [38]. Since aatA was retained in isolates of different phylogenetic groups, the discrete Sapitinib price function of the protein in the respective strains, whether they commensally colonize the intestine or invade other internal organs of poultry and cause severe systemic Selleckchem FHPI infections, remains unsolved to date and should be subjected to thorough investigations in

the future. Many autotransporter adhesins are known to be relevant not only for adhesion but also for biofilm formation, invasion, aggregation and toxicity [13]. Adhesins related to AatA, such as Hap, Ag43, AIDA and TibA, for example, contribute check to bacterial aggregation by intercellular passenger domain interactions [39]. Most trimeric autotransporter adhesins also seem to confer serum resistance by binding to components of the complement system [40]. Although IMT5155 does not produce a biofilm under normal lab conditions, it remains to be determined if in vivo conditions might probably trigger this phenotype, enabling to investigate a possible role of AatA in this process. Although Li et al. suggested that AatA is not involved in autoaggregation or biofilm formation [17], it did not become evident whether they tested the wild-type and mutant strain, observing no difference,

or whether the wild-type strain APEC_O1, comparable to IMT5155, did not show these phenotypes in general. Conclusion A chromosomal variant of the autotransporter adhesin gene aatA, which has recently been described in the plasmid pAPEC-O1-ColBM of APEC_O1 [17] was identified in APEC strain IMT5155. The gene product conferred adhesion of a fim-negative K-12 strain to DF-1 cells and its passenger domain was able to trigger immune responses in rabbits. Prevalence studies clearly hinted towards a special importance of this adhesin in avian pathogenic E. coli strains, whether outbreak or so-called reservoir strains, while an essential functional role for other animal and human ExPEC strains cannot be inferred from the present data.

01). From the right to the left: in red and blue colour A. fumigatus (strains IHEM 22145 and IHEM18963) and in green and yellow colour A. lentulus (strains IHEM 22148 and IHEM 22149). Even if these two species are morphologically very similar, it has been shown that they display differences in their cell wall composition, i.e. A. lentulus contains less chitin than A. fumigatus [9], is less

thermotolerant and produced Palbociclib research buy different secondary metabolites. The conidium surface is smooth and lack hydrophobic rodlet layer. These biochemical and structural differences could explain a distinguishable protein pattern. Conclusions The qualitative selleck and quantitative results provided by SELDI-TOF-MS can be obtained in a rapid, sensitive and reproducible way if careful

and standardized procedures are used for sample preparation and storage. The spectra obtained on CM10 chip essentially are protein signatures representative of the strains and of their physiological states. The proteomic analysis allows the distinction of not only the closely related species A. fumigatus and A. lentulus but also natural mutants within the A. fumigatus species. Furthermore, it could be an analytical tool in the research of molecular mechanisms involved in the physiopathology of A. fumigatus. It could be also a powerful method for quality control of antigenic extracts for diagnosis purposes. Methods BYL719 in vitro Fungal strains All the strains detailed in Table 1 were referenced and preserved in the BCCM/IHEM Collection of the Scientific Institute of Public Health, Brussels, Belgium (http://​bccm.​belspo.​be/​db/​ihem_​search_​form.​php). They consisted of three wild-type strains of A. fumigatus (WT), including strain Af 293 used for genome sequencing of A. fumigatus

and four natural abnormally pigmented strains of A. fumigatus (M) among which one brown and three white strains. All the isolates were identified by macroscopic and microscopic morphology. Their identification was confirmed by internal transcribed spacers (ITS) regions of ribosomal DNA ligase DNA gene and by β-tubulin gene sequencing [8, 44]. Two A. lentulus strains came from the CBS collection (Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures, Utrecht, The Netherlands). Table 1 References, characteristics and origin of the different Aspergillus fumigatus (Afu) and Aspergillus lentulus (Ale) strains used IHEM Number Other acronym Species Afu/Ale Strain characteristics Substrate origin, underlying disease Year isolation, Country 9599   Afu WT* human blood culture, IA (hepatoblastoma), 1995, France 22145   Afu WT Human cerebral biopsy, IA (leukaemia) 2001, France 18963 Af293 Afu WT Human lung, IA (autopsy), reference sequencing project 1993, UK 2508   Afu White M** Hospital environment 1985, Belgium 9860 CBS 386.75 Afu White M Usar soil 1975, India 13262 CBS 110.

Next, an active layer consisting of 1:1 mixture of P3HT (99.9%, Aldrich) and PC61BM (99.9%, Lumtec, Mentor, OH, USA) was prepared in 1,2-dichlorobenzene (DCB) at a concentration of 4 mg/ml and

then spray-coated at a rate of 0.30 ml/min at a height of 20 cm. PEDOT:PSS was sprayed at a rate of 0.35 ml/min at a height of 18 cm. The post annealing process was employed for modifying the active layer and PEDOT:PSS, which was at 140°C for 5 min and at 130°C for 20 min, respectively. Figure 1 Spray coating apparatus, sintering process, and coffee ring effect. (a) Schematic diagram of the spray coating apparatus in this study. (b) Illustration of the sintering process of silver nanoparticle inks. (c) Image of the coffee ring effect on silver nanoparticle inks during the sintering process. Throughout OICR-9429 order the whole PSC spray coating process, the airbrush was powered by N2 gas at a high pressure of approximately 60 psi to SIS3 ensure a fine nebulization of solution. The morphology of the nanoscale conductive pattern was characterized by SEM (JSM-6610LV) and metallurgical microscopy (Olympus BX41, Shinjuku-ku, Japan). The component of the pattern was analyzed by EDS (Oxford Instruments, Abingdon, UK). Current density-voltage

(J-V) curves under illumination were measured with a Keithley 4200 programmable voltage–current source (Cleveland, OH, USA). A xenon lamp (CHF-XM35, Beijing Trusttech, Beijing, China) with an illumination power of 100 mW/cm2 was used as an illumination source. The thicknesses of the film obtained from the solution process were measured with a stylus Montelukast Sodium profiler (Dektak 150 stylus profiler, New York, USA). All the measurements were carried out in air at ambient circumstance without

device encapsulation. Results and discussion Figure 1b illustrates the mechanism of the sintering process of silver nanoparticle inks, in which the stabilizing polymer is removed from the Ag nanoparticle surface upon drying the dispersion [32]. The coffee ring effect and Marangoni flow are important factors to determine the morphology of the resulting film during the sintering process [33, 34]. As shown in Figure 1c, the solute would accumulate at the rim of a drying droplet under the influence of a surface tension gradient – the so-called Marangoni flow. In order to gain control over the homogeneity of the spray-coated film, we increased the vapor pressure around the drying feature by incorporating ethanol. The spreading capability according to the Marangoni velocity is (1) where η is the viscosity of the film, γ the surface tension, x the volume fraction of the low surface tension PU-H71 price solvent, A l and A h the evaporation velocity, and α l and α h the activity coefficient of the low and high surface tension solvent, respectively [35]. Through optimizing the content of silver nanoparticle inks, it was found that 45 vol.

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21. Diaz-Silvestre H, Espinosa-Cueto P, Sanchez-Gonzalez A, Esparza-Ceron MA, Pereira-Suarez AL, Bernal-Fernandez G, Espitia C, Mancilla R: The 19-kDa antigen of Mycobacterium tuberculosis is a major adhesin that binds the mannose receptor of THP-1 monocytic cells and promotes phagocytosis of mycobacteria. Microb Pathog 2005,39(3):97–107.CrossRefPubMed 22. Stewart GR, Wilkinson KA, Newton SM, Sullivan SM, Neyrolles Transmembrane Transproters inhibitor O, Wain JR, Patel MM-102 J, Pool KL, Young DB, Wilkinson

RJ: Effect of Deletion or Overexpression of the 19-Kilodalton Lipoprotein Rv3763 on the Innate Response to Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Infect Immun 2005,73(10):6831–6837.CrossRefPubMed 23. Herrmann JL, Delahay R, Gallagher A, Robertson B, Young D: Analysis of post-translational modification of mycobacterial proteins using a cassette expression system. FEBS Lett 2000,473(3):358–362.CrossRefPubMed 24. Herrmann JL, O’Gaora P, Gallagher A, Thole JE, Young DB: Bacterial glycoproteins: a link between glycosylation Thiamet G and proteolytic cleavage of a 19 kDa antigen from Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

EMBO J 1996,15(14):3547–3554.PubMed 25. Neyrolles O, Gould K, Gares M-P, Brett S, Janssen R, O’Gaora P, Herrmann J-L, Prévost M-C, Perret E, Thole J, et al.: Lipoprotein access to MHC Class I presentation during infection of murine macrophages with live mycobacteria. J Immunol 2001, 166:447–457.PubMed 26. Lee MH, Pascopella L, Jacobs WR Jr, Hatfull GF: Site-specific integration of mycobacteriophage L5: integration-proficient vectors for Mycobacterium smegmatis, Mycobacterium tuberculosis , and bacille Calmette-Guerin. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1991,88(8):3111–3115.CrossRefPubMed 27. Stewart GR, Newton SM, Wilkinson KA, Humphreys IR, Murphy HN, Robertson BD, Wilkinson RJ, Young DB: The stress-responsive chaperone alpha-crystallin 2 is required for pathogenesis of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Mol Microbiol 2005,55(4):1127–1137.CrossRefPubMed 28. Altschul SF, Gish W, Miller W, Myers EW, Lipman DJ: Basic local alignment search tool. J Mol Biol 1990,215(3):403–410.PubMed 29. Babu MM, Priya ML, Selvan AT, Madera M, Gough J, Selleck SB431542 Aravind L, Sankaran K: A database of bacterial lipoproteins (DOLOP) with functional assignments to predicted lipoproteins. J Bacteriol 2006,188(8):2761–2773.CrossRefPubMed 30. Sartain MJ, Belisle JT: N-Terminal clustering of the O-glycosylation sites in the Mycobacterium tuberculosis lipoprotein SodC. Glycobiology 2009,19(1):38–51.

Titrated dhs-specific mRNA resulted in a limit of detection of 20 ng while eIF-5A-specific mRNA could only be detected at a concentration of 200 ng. Optimal primer

binding was determined for eIF-5A-specific primers at a cDNA concentration of 130 ng and for dhs-specific primers at a cDNA concentration of 650 ng (data not shown). In sum, these data demonstrated that Plasmodium-specific eIF-5A and DHS sequences can in principal be silenced by RNAi. Monitoring in vivo silencing of eIF-5A and DHS in erythrocytic stages after this website infection of NMRI mice with transgenic schizonts from P. berghei With regard to the in vitro results, we investigated the silencing effect of the expressed DHS-specific and eIF-5A specific shRNAs in an in vivo rodent model of P. berghei

ANKA strain [24]. Infection of NMRI mice with P. berghei ANKA wild type strain leads to experimental cerebral malaria within 6 to VX 809 10 days p. i. although the parasitemia is only in the range of 3–5% infected erythrocytes. In case of the infectious but non lethal phenotype P. berghei strain NK56, the infected mice succumb to high parasitemia within 80 days p.i. without cerebral malaria. In a first step DHS-specific shRNA #176 or eIF-5A-specific shRNA #18 expressed from pSilencer 1.0-U6 vector was transfected into schizonts, the late developmental stage of the parasite. These transgenic schizonts were applied to NMRI mice for infection. In vivo gene silencing was monitored in the animals’ erythrocytes at day 2 post infection by RT-PCR as before. Infection with schizonts containing the eIF-5A-specific shRNA #18 vector (Figure 3A lane 2) led to a complete disappearance Verteporfin of the respective transcripts, at least within the detection level of this assay. By contrast, the eIF-5A sequences were clearly detected

in the erythrocytic stage after infection with schizonts, which were transfected with the dhs-specific shRNA #176 vector (Figure 3A, lane 1). Several control reactions were applied. The RT-PCR reactions of a kanamycin control RNA of 1.2 kb (Figure 3A, lane 5) and that of the recombinant eIF-5A plasmid from P. vivax was monitored, resulting in amplification products of approximately 323 bp and 448 bp, respectively (Figure 3A, lanes 5 and 4). Fossariinae In parallel we confirmed the quality of the total cellular RNA preparation for the presence of the α-tubulin II sequences, which are expressed in the asexual blood stages of Plasmodium (lane 4). Figure 3 A) Monitoring in vivo silencing of parasitic eIF-5A by RT-PCR in RBCs of infected NMRI mice 2 days post infection. NMRI mice were infected with transgenic schizonts harbouring the expressed shRNA P#18. M1) 1 kb ladder (LifeTechnologies, Karlsruhe, Germany); 1) non-transfected 293T cells 2) EIF-5A-siRNA; 3) A positive control for the quality of cellular RNA is the 548 bp amplificate generated with α-tubulin gene-specific primers from P. berghei; 4) A PCR-control reaction with eIF-5A-gene specific primers from P.

All authors approved the final manuscript.”
“Background Nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae (NTHi) is a Gram-negative organism that is both a common commensal of the upper respiratory tract as well as a significant cause of respiratory tract infections in humans. NTHi is the second most common cause of acute otitis media after Streptococcus pneumoniae and, in many studies, is the most common cause of recurrent otitis media based on INK1197 cultures of middle ear fluids obtained by tympanocentesis see more [1]. Recurrent otitis media is associated with pain, the need for insertion of tympanostomy tubes under general anesthesia, conductive hearing

impairment, and delayed speech and language development [2]. Currently, otitis media is commonly treated with antibiotics, among which amoxicillin is the consensus recommendation for the initial

therapy [3, 4]. But approximately 20–35% of NTHi strains, depending on geographic location, produce β-lactamase and these strains are resistant to amoxicillin [4]. Moreover, there is currently no licensed vaccine available to prevent NTHi infections. Thus, illuminating the molecular mechanisms of NTHi infections could lead to the development of novel strategies to improve prophylaxis and treatment of otitis media. Adhesin molecules on the surface of NTHi are shown to bind Bleomycin to respiratory tract target cells and activate these cells to induce inflammation [5, 6]. NTHi also penetrates into human respiratory tract cells (epithelial cells and macrophages) and the interstitium to cause nasopharyngeal colonization and respiratory infection [7–10]. Biofilms of NTHi found in middle ears are postulated to be responsible for the resistance to clearance by host immune responses and antibiotic treatments, therefore resulting in recurrent otitis media [5, 6, 11, 12]. However, there is controversy Buspirone HCl whether the reported biofilm is an outcome of infectious interactions between the host

and NTHi or a programmed phenotype of NTHi virulence [13]. Although these observations have advanced our understanding, much of the pathogenesis of NTHi-induced otitis media, especially recurrent otitis media, is largely unknown. Toxin-antitoxin (TA) systems are small genetic modules comprised of two components, a stable toxin and its labile antitoxin. TA systems in prokaryotic genomes are classified into 3 types, based on the antitoxin nature and mode of action. While toxins are always proteins, antitoxins are either RNAs (types I and III) or proteins (type II) [14]. Several common families of type II modules have been identified on the chromosomes of bacteria and archaea: relBE, higBA, mazEF, ccdAB, vapBC, parDE, phd–doc, ζε, hipBA, and yoeB–yefM[15]. Type II TA systems are thought to be part of the mobilome and to move from one genome to another through horizontal gene transfer [16, 17].