Authors’ contributions Experiments were performed by the following authors: EMSA assays – GCB and MT; Miller assays – GCB, JLM, KT, MT, and NRE; disc assays for gene expression and growth inhibition – MT and NRE; secretion assays – GCB; zinc precipitation measurements – JC; transmission electron microscopy – NRE. The manuscript was written primarily by JLM with review by all authors before submission. All authors read and approved the PX-478 datasheet final manuscript.”
“Background Burkholderia mallei is an obligate parasite of horses, mules and donkeys and no other natural reservoir is known [1]. The organism

is a GSK3326595 ic50 nonmotile gram-negative bacillus that is closely related to Burkholderia pseudomallei and Burkholderia thailandensis. B. pseudomallei is a pathogenic microbe that causes the

glanders-like disease melioidosis [2] and B. thailandensis is a weakly pathogenic soil saprophyte [3]. While a handful of Burkholderia virulence determinants have been identified using rodent models of infection [4], research on the molecular mechanism(s) of pathogenesis is still a fertile area. B. mallei B. pseudomallei, and B. thailandensis are able to survive and replicate inside phagocytic cells in a process that involves escape from the endocytic vacuole, replication in the cytosol, intra- and intercellular spread by actin polymerization, and fusion with uninfected cells to form multinucleated giant cells (MNGCs) [4]. Gram-negative pathogens often use secretion systems to deliver virulence factors to the cytosol of host cells, where buy VX-809 they modulate cell physiology to favor

the microbe. The exploitation of host phagocytic cells by B. pseudomallei involves two type III secretion systems (T3SS-1 & T3SS-3) [5–7], a type V secretion system (BimA) [8], and the cluster 1 type VI secretion system (T6SS-1) [9]. T6SS-1, occasionally referred to as tss-5[10], is also important for host cell interactions and virulence in B. mallei and B. thailandensis[11, 12]. Small mammal models of infection have long been employed to characterize virulence factors of bacterial pathogens, but over the last decade there has been an increase in the use of surrogate hosts to study the pathogenic mechanisms of bacteria [13, 14]. Several surrogate hosts have been used as alternatives to selleck chemicals llc mammals to study virulence factors and host-pathogen interactions with B. pseudomallei B. mallei, and B. thailandensis, including Galleria mellonella larvae (wax worms) [15, 16], Dictyostelium discoideum (phagocytic amoeba) [17], Caenorhabditis elegans (soil nematode) [18–20], and Solanum lycopersicum (tomato plantlets) [21]. These alternative hosts have allowed the identification of new Burkholderia virulence determinants and have confirmed the importance of virulence factors previously characterized using rodent models of infection.